Reflexionen, Kommentare und andere Zustände der Welt
On this series: This blog post belongs to a series under the title and leading question „Can networks of local governments challenge the rise of cross-border neo-populism?“. The complete series are my contribution to an edited volume by Dr. Agata Rogoś, postdoctoral research fellow at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Agata’s Edited volume’s working title is „Permeability... Continue Reading →
Vorbemerkung: Dieser Blogbeitrag gehört zu einer Serie unter dem Titel und der Leitfrage “Können Netzwerke von Kommunalverwaltungen den Aufstieg des grenzüberschreitenden Neopopulismus herausfordern?” Die komplette Serie ist mein Beitrag zu einem Sammelband von Dr. Agata Rogoś, Postdoc-Stipendiatin an der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Der Arbeitstitel des von Agata herausgegebenen, englischsprachigen Bandes lautet “Permeability of dispossession /... Continue Reading →
In diesem Beitrag werde ich die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen von Städtepartnerschaften, Städtediplomatie, Koalitionen von Gemeinden und zivilgesellschaftlicher Akteure als mögliche Lösungen für den globalen Aufstieg von Populismus und Neopopulismus diskutieren. Ich werde mich auf den Fall der türkisch-bosnischen (bosniakischen) Städte- und Gemeindepartnerschaften konzentrieren, die im gesamten Text als „Geschwisterstädte“ bezeichnet werden: Diese Metapher wird dem türkischen Begriff 'kardeş şehir', dem bosnischen Begriff 'pobratimlja' und der asymmetrischen, hierarchischen Beziehung dieser Arrangements besser gerecht. Diese neueren Formen von Städte- und Gemeindepartnerschaften weichen von vielen anderen, bekannten Beispielen ab – vor allem, weil sie von autoritären, rechten und neopopulistischen Akteuren dominiert werden.
Whether free iftar meals, collective circumcision ceremonies for Balkan boys by Turkish circumcisers (sünnet şölenleri), renovations and constructions of mosques, hammams, fountains, public squares, bridges or similar activities: Turkish public diplomats' activities are disproportionally often religiously embellished. Yet, these activities are not pursued solely for altruistic reasons or for „their ‘magical value’, which Mauss saw was 'still present in sadaqa’“, as some authors have interpreted other forms of gift exchange under Islamic auspices. The gift, as Mauss had it, involves and demands reciprocity. In the case of Turkish-Bosnian cross-border neo-populism, a „mixed economy“ is at play between AKP-governed, Turkish municipalities and their Bosnian counterparts: spiritual categories are distinctively present – while they are blended and traded together with the „hard currencies“ of the capitalist market of public opinions. This means that the gifted („the invested“, „the helped ones“) are expected to deliver, in return, to their donor with consent and supportive public opinions.
The Turkish ruling regime's problematic use of a vocabulary that appears to be identical with that of many Balkan post-migrants manifests in one of the goals of the AKP's „Vision 2023“ on its official homepage. There, a collective „we“ announces that „we will (re-)appropriate the reminiscences of our forefathers“ („Atayadigârlarımıza sahip çıkacağız”), with the historical Old Bridge of Mostar in the background. The same totemic language is applied on the homepage of TİKA, the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency: „Turkey appropriates the monuments of the Ottoman reminiscences in the Balkans“ (Türkiye Balkanlar'daki Osmanlı Yadigârı Eserlere Sahip Çıkıyor). In a similar vein, the reminiscence (yadigâr) is more frequently paraphrased by the notion of the „Ottoman heritage“ (Osmanlı Mirası): thus, figurative kinship relations to the Balkans (heritage) are constructed. This figurative kinship is also expressed in countless other public speech acts, where Bosniaks and Turks are regularly called siblings (kardeş) and relatives (akraba), regardless of their biographies. Similarly, Bosnia, Kosovo, or other places were often called „home“ or declared identical with Turkey by Turkish officials. These samples show that the understanding of the nation-state itself and its borders was widened by the AKP regime throughout the past years, characterized by the use of kinship-metaphores. Concomitantly, the existing and conflictuous questions of belonging, ownership, sovereignty and territoriality in the Western Balkans were even amplified.
As this example shows, being different from the others -- as Muhacir -- does not mean being other than Turkish: it rather means that there are one or more deep societal conflicts about the understanding how to be Turkish, and/or who determines what Turkish and Turkish culture would possibly be. I was told in practically every single interview with Bosniak Muhacirs (and their offspring) in Turkey what they perceive of as the most fundamental difference between themselves and 'the others': they would never -- down "to the seventh or ninth generation" -- ever marry their akraba (= relatives). Cousin marriage -- in the Arabic speaking Middle East described as bint 'amm marriage by anthropologists -- is in Turkey known as akraba evliliği. It is considered to be an eastern practice by Bosniak Muhacir people in Turkey, which corresponds to the fact that in the Balkans, cousin marriage is practically taboo and considered incestuous. Hence, the reactions of many Bosniak Muhacir people to the fact that some of their Anatolian compatriots practice it, often were expressed in extreme disgust. "Bunlar kültürsüz" -- they have no culture -- was often added as an explanatory comment. The importance of this societal conflict, where representatives of both sides can claim their own establishedness and the other side's outsiderness, should not be underestimated in the way how figurative kinship is established through sibling cities (kardeş şehir), either by representatives of the ruling party, or by Muhacir groups: even though representatives of both groups use the same kinship metaphores (like sibling / kardeş) and speak about culture (kültür), they may fundamentally disagree over the meaning and the role of their agnatic or figurative akraba (kinship) -- as the example of akraba evliliği shows. In the same vein, there are fundamental disagreements over the notion of culture, and the way how culture is brokered by official Turkish cultural centers and initiatives on the market of public opinions in the Balkans.
The stress of the Ottoman past in the official Turkish actors' cultural initiatives is the reason why their activities have been classified cultural diplomacy from the very beginning of their visibility in the Balkans. The year 2009, when the first branch of the Yunus-Emre-Cultural Centers opened its doors in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, can be seen as a first significant benchmark. However, Turkish culture and cultural diplomacy are not only promoted in direct and subtle ways by offical representatives of the Turkish state: from the point of view of soft power – which according to Joseph Nye needs to work subtly in order to be successful – the popularity of Turkish TV-series was (and still is) of enormous relevance. Especially the latter aspect implies that an understanding of the appeal of “Turkish culture” in the Balkans cannot solely be explained by studying the ruling regime's activities: much broader strata of the involved societies (e.g. TV consumers/prosumers in Bosnia and Turkey) and their various discoursive contexts are, as informal actors, involved in the process of cultural diplomacy.
In this contribution, I will discuss the possibilities and limits of town twinnings, city diplomacy and coalitions of mayors as possible solutions to the global rise of populism and neo-populism. I will focus the case of Turkish-Bosnian (Bosniak) town twinnings, which will be called sibling cities throughout the text: this metaphore better responds to the Turkish notion of kardeş şehir, the Bosnian notion pobratimlja, and the asymmetrical relationship of these arrangements. These recent forms of town twinnings are deviant from many other, well-known examples -- mainly for being dominated by authoritarian, right-wing and neo-populist actors. Populism, despite being a global trend, is often perceived as a phenomenon that occurs inside a given nation-state. However, cross-border coalitions of municipalities between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey together form a polity beyond the level of national governments; at once, they remain being heavily shaped by the latter. Alongside with this phenomenon, a new form of cross-border neo-populism is emerging: unlike „classical“ populism, neo-populism addresses more than one populus (people).
Vor ein paar Tagen kursierte in den Online Social Media die Botschaft "Gezi ist acht Jahre alt" (Gezi 8 yaşında) -- als handle es sich bei den türkischen Protesten vom Spätfrühling und Sommer 2013 um ein kleines Kind, das allmählich heranwächst. Ein geschlagenes Kind, muss man jedoch dazu sagen: wie wahrscheinlich noch die meisten Türkei... Continue Reading →
Unser anhaltender, mit tweetendem Tempo um sich greifender Zwischenzustand ist wohl mit Antonio Gramscis Interregnum reichlich treffend erfasst, den ich hier als Alternative für den Begriff der Metamorphose diskutieren will. Die Erfassung dieses Interregnums – und ihm so überhaupt beikommen zu können – erscheint mir dringender denn je. Auf die Gefahr hin, zu wiederholen, was ich... Continue Reading →
Ein Workshop in Podgorica und eine Exkursion nach Ulcinj Wir, die Teilnehmer des Workshops "Discursive inclusion and exclusion of Muslims in the Balkans" (9.-11.7.2018), haben am zweiten Tag unseres Workshops eine Exkursion in die nahegelegene Küstenstadt Ulcinj unternommen. In Ulcinj haben wir mit Vertretern der lokalen Verwaltung, der Islamischen Gemeinschaft, des Mediensektors und von Nichtregierungsorganisationen... Continue Reading →
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