Reflexionen, Kommentare und andere Zustände der Welt
On this series: This blog post belongs to a series under the title and leading question „Can networks of local governments challenge the rise of cross-border neo-populism?“. The complete series are my contribution to an edited volume by Dr. Agata Rogoś, postdoctoral research fellow at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Agata’s Edited volume’s working title is „Permeability... Continue Reading →
On this series: This blog post belongs to a series under the title and leading question "Can networks of local governments challenge the rise of cross-border neo-populism?". The complete series are my contribution to an edited volume by Dr. Agata Rogoś, postdoctoral research fellow at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Agata's Edited volume's working title is "Permeability... Continue Reading →
Die Türkei ist ein zentralisierter Staat mit strengen vertikalen Hierarchien, die auf der ersten Verfassung von 1982 aufbauen, nachdem in Folge des Militärputsches von 1980 der politische Prozess des Landes zwei Jahre weitgehend eingefroren worden war. Die institutionellen Strukturen der letzten vier Jahrzehnte tragen die erkennbaren Spuren der Militärjunta -- und in der Tat, wie Ayşe Gül Altınay in ihrem bahnbrechenden Buch The Myth of the Military Nation (Altınay 2004) nachgezeichnet hatte, reichen die starken militaristischen Vermächtnisse in der Türkei bis in die späte osmanische Zeit, in die preußisch-osmanische Zusammenarbeit und die Anfänge der Republik zurück. Besonders aus Sicht vieler türkischer Perspektiven führte das lang anhaltende Intermezzo erfolgloser Versuche der Annäherung an den sogenannten Acquis Communautaire der EU, die in den 1990er Jahren an Fahrt aufnahmen, zu weit verbreiteter Frustration und Enttäuschung. Das türkische Anliegen einer Vollmitgliedschaft in der EU wurde wiederholt (und aus unterschiedlichen Gründen) zurückgewiesen. Dabei spielen der stockende Demokratisierungsprozess, die anhaltenden Verletzungen der Menschenrechte, der ungelöste Konflikt mit dem EU-Staat Zypern -- und nicht zuletzt der Kurdenkonflikt und die Leugnung des Völkermords an den Armeniern eine große Rolle. Darüber hinaus spielten auf der Bühne der öffentlichen Meinungen jedoch immer wieder auch Fragen der Identität, (Nicht-)Zugehörigkeit und Ausgrenzung eine Rolle, ob auf europäischer oder türkischer Seite -- wenn etwa die Europäizität der Türkei ganz in Frage gestellt wurde, oder türkische Politiker die EU als christlichen Club bezeichneten (Terzi 2012; "Die Türkei und die EU 2018"). Der lange Schatten all dieser Konflikte schwingt in der hierarchischen Verflechtung der territorial-administrativen Strukturen der Türkei mit -- und auch in der Art und Weise, wie die Beziehungen zu den Gemeinden auf dem Balkan hergestellt werden.
As this example shows, being different from the others -- as Muhacir -- does not mean being other than Turkish: it rather means that there are one or more deep societal conflicts about the understanding how to be Turkish, and/or who determines what Turkish and Turkish culture would possibly be. I was told in practically every single interview with Bosniak Muhacirs (and their offspring) in Turkey what they perceive of as the most fundamental difference between themselves and 'the others': they would never -- down "to the seventh or ninth generation" -- ever marry their akraba (= relatives). Cousin marriage -- in the Arabic speaking Middle East described as bint 'amm marriage by anthropologists -- is in Turkey known as akraba evliliği. It is considered to be an eastern practice by Bosniak Muhacir people in Turkey, which corresponds to the fact that in the Balkans, cousin marriage is practically taboo and considered incestuous. Hence, the reactions of many Bosniak Muhacir people to the fact that some of their Anatolian compatriots practice it, often were expressed in extreme disgust. "Bunlar kültürsüz" -- they have no culture -- was often added as an explanatory comment. The importance of this societal conflict, where representatives of both sides can claim their own establishedness and the other side's outsiderness, should not be underestimated in the way how figurative kinship is established through sibling cities (kardeş şehir), either by representatives of the ruling party, or by Muhacir groups: even though representatives of both groups use the same kinship metaphores (like sibling / kardeş) and speak about culture (kültür), they may fundamentally disagree over the meaning and the role of their agnatic or figurative akraba (kinship) -- as the example of akraba evliliği shows. In the same vein, there are fundamental disagreements over the notion of culture, and the way how culture is brokered by official Turkish cultural centers and initiatives on the market of public opinions in the Balkans.
The stress of the Ottoman past in the official Turkish actors' cultural initiatives is the reason why their activities have been classified cultural diplomacy from the very beginning of their visibility in the Balkans. The year 2009, when the first branch of the Yunus-Emre-Cultural Centers opened its doors in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, can be seen as a first significant benchmark. However, Turkish culture and cultural diplomacy are not only promoted in direct and subtle ways by offical representatives of the Turkish state: from the point of view of soft power – which according to Joseph Nye needs to work subtly in order to be successful – the popularity of Turkish TV-series was (and still is) of enormous relevance. Especially the latter aspect implies that an understanding of the appeal of “Turkish culture” in the Balkans cannot solely be explained by studying the ruling regime's activities: much broader strata of the involved societies (e.g. TV consumers/prosumers in Bosnia and Turkey) and their various discoursive contexts are, as informal actors, involved in the process of cultural diplomacy.
Inkubator M e t a m o r φ 
Neueste Kommentare